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From : NMi iNtERCEPtOR 2:5020/327.327 30 Sep 97 10:04:00
Subj : masquerading
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FM> Что такое %subj%
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<!--#exec cgi="/cgi-bin/navigator/core/3"-->
<center>
Linux firewall facilities<br>
for kernel-level packet screening<p>
<a href="mailto:[email protected]">Jos Vos</a><br>
<a href="mailto:[email protected]">Willy Konijnenberg</a><p>
X/OS Experts in Open Systems BV<br>
Kruislaan 419<br>
1098 VA Amsterdam<br>
The Netherlands<p>
NLUUG Spring Conference 1996<br>
De Reehorst, Ede, The Netherlands<br>
May 8-9, 1996<p>
<img src="/img/separators/yellow-long.gif">
</center>
Abstract:<p>
The freely available Linux operating system includes a number of
facilities for efficient kernel-level IP packet filtering and
screening. The acceptance and forwarding of IP packets can be
regulated by specifying filter rules, using packet and network device
characteristics, such as IP addresses, port numbers, IP flags, and
incoming or outgoing interfaces. Linux also provides a facility
comparable (to some extend) with transparent proxies (not requiring
any changes for users or application software), which is implemented
as part of the IP firewall module and can be configured using a
similar set of rules.
<center>
<img src="/img/separators/yellow-long.gif">
<table>
<tr>
<td><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
<a href="#01">Introduction</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
<a href="#02">IP packet filtering</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
<a href="#03">Kernel filtering scheme</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
<a href="#04">Managing firewall filters</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
<a href="#05">Masquerading (transparent proxying)</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
<a href="#06">IP traffic accounting</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
<a href="#07">A real-life example</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
<a href="#08">Future directions</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
<a href="#09">Complete firewalls based on Linux</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
<a href="#10">References</a>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<img src="/img/separators/yellow-long.gif">
</center>
Note that this paper is based on Linux 1.3.88 and ipfwadm 2.0,
describing the situation in April 1996.<br>
A revision of this paper for Linux 2.0.x and ipfwadm 2.3.0 is
planned, but not yet available.<br>
Copyright (c) 1996 by X/OS Experts in Open Systems BV. All rights reserved.
<p>
<a name="01"></a>
<center><img src="/img/separators/yellow-long.gif"><br><b>Introduction</b><br><
img src="/img/separators/yellow-short.gif"></center>
<p align=left>
Network security, and more specifically the use of Internet firewalls,
is one of today's hottest topics in the computer business. Every
private network that is going to be connected to the Internet needs an
appropriate firewall, being some combination of hardware, software,
and procedures, to protect it. Most commercial firewall products are
quite expensive, especially for small companies.
<p>
An alternative is to use Linux, a freely available operating system.
We will focus on one aspect of Linux, the IP packet screening
facilities, being one of the components for building firewalls based
on Linux. A good firewall certainly needs more than packet filters. At
the end you'll find some recommendations for using Linux systems as a
complete firewall solution.
<p>
This paper is based on release 1.3.88 of the Linux kernel and version
2.0 of the ipfwadm utility. Be aware of the fact that some details
might have changed in the next production release of Linux.
<p>
<p>
<a name="02"></a>
<center><img src="/img/separators/yellow-long.gif"><br><b>IP packet
filtering</b><br><img src="/img/separators/yellow-short.gif"></center>
<p>
Before describing the Linux implementation of IP packet filtering, we
will briefly introduce the underlying general concepts.
<p>
IP packet filters inspect network datagrams (IP packets) and decide
whether these packets are allowed to pass the filter or not. These
inspections may take place at several stages, like the moment packets
arrive on the system or when they are about to be forwarded to another
system.
<p>
The decision to let a filter block certain packets is usually based on
several criteria, being checked against the contents of the IP packet
and some environmental parameters:
<br>
<table>
<tr>
<td valign=top><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
Source and destination IP addresses. This allows an administrator
to restrict the traffic through the system by allowing only
packets coming from (or sent to) a set of well-known hosts or
networks. These addresses can be found in the header of every IP
packet.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
Protocol, like TCP, UDP, or ICMP, which can also be found in the
IP header.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
IP options. One of the more well-known options is the source route
option, which can be considered to be dangerous in itself. Packets
carrying this option are often refused.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
Source and destination port numbers, associated with TCP or UDP
services. These port numbers can be found in the TCP and UDP
header. Filters using port numbers can restrict the network
traffic to a limited set of services, each of which is associated
with a well-known port.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
TCP flags, being part of the TCP header. Most packet filters allow
the TCP ACK and/or SYN bits to be checked, indicating whether a
new connection is being set up or not. This is particularly useful
when you want to allow some TCP sessions being initiated only from
one side (e.g., only from hosts in your own network).
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
ICMP message types, being defined in ICMP packets. This enables
you to restrict ICMP traffic to a limited set of message types.
You may, for example, want to refuse Echo Request packets (as used
by ping).
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
User data, found in the (protocol-specific) data part of the IP
packet. This is a tricky one, which normally doesn't belong in IP
packet filters.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
Network device, via which a packet is received or is going to be
sent. This enables you to let a filter act differently for
different network devices (like external and internal interfaces).
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top><img src="/img/icons/checked.gif"></td>
<td>
Date and time. This can be used to limit some types of network
traffic to office hours, for example.
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Some of these criteria are easy to check, such as the ones being part
of the IP header. Others may be more difficult to handle, such as the
information found in the TCP/UDP headers. One IP packet, for example,
may be split up in two or more IP fragments, of which only the first
fragment contains the TCP header. Furthermore, IP packets may not pass
the filter in sequence, because session control is handled in the TCP
layer. Some packet filters address some of these problems, others
don't.
<p>
An IP packet filter can react in different ways to packets, depending
on the filters and the capabilities of the filtering system. The most
obvious actions are: let the packet pass the filter normally or drop
the packet silently. Some filters also offer the possibility to send
some notification (like an ICMP Destination Unreachable message) back
to the sender, in case a packet is blocked by the filter. Besides
that, filters often include some logging facility, to facilitate the
network administrator in detecting if someone is trying to break in.
<p>
There are several ways to implement packet filters in a UNIX system.
The most efficient way is to implement it in the kernel. One of the
disadvantages of this method is that it is not very flexible. Another
method is to let some user-level process do the filtering. Such a
daemon process has to get the relevant information of all IP packets
(at least part of the IP and TCP/UDP headers, possibly even the data
part) via some system call, apply its filter rules, and pass the
answer back to the kernel. The (freely available) screend package
behaves like this. The major drawback of these implementations is the
considerable overhead generated by the system calls and process
scheduling.
<p>
<p>
<a name="03"></a>
<center><img src="/img/separators/yellow-long.gif"><br><b>Kernel filtering
scheme</b><br><img src="/img/separators/yellow-short.gif"></center>
<p>
The Linux kernel provides native support for IP packet filtering at
several stages: when a packet is received, when packet is sent, and
when a packet is being forwarded (see figure 1).
<p align=center>
[PICTURE MISSING]
<br>
Figure 1
<p>
Each of the three filters consists of a default policy and a list of
filter rules. Every filter rule defines some packet characteristics,
like IP addresses, an optional network device, and several other
options. Furthermore, each rule has a policy associated with it,
defining what to do when a packet matches with the rule.
<p>
The algorithm used in the filters can be described as follows:
<table>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
1
</td>
<td colspan=2>
Step through the list of filter rules associated with the filter
and check whether the packet matches with the rule or not.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
2
</td>
<td colspan=2>
The first matching filter rule (if any) determines all further
actions:
</td>
</tr>
<td>
</td>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
The rule's policy will be applied to the packet.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Each rule contains packet and byte counters, which will be
incremented when a packet matches.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Optionally, some information about the packet is written to
the Linux kernel log.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Finally, a rule may contain parameters defining how to change
the TOS-field in the IP header, dealing with the packet's
priority.
</td>
</tr>
<td valign=top>
3
</td>
<td colspan=2>
If none of the filter rules match with the packet, use the default
policy associated with the filter.
<br>
There are currently three policies supported in Linux:
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Accept: let the packet pass the filter.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Deny: silenty drop the packet.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Reject: drop the packet and send an ICMP Destination Unreachable
message back to the sender as a notification.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td colspan=2>
Filter rules in Linux contain the following items:
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
IP source and destination addresses, both with their own 32-bit
mask. Although the most common use of the mask is some regular
netmask, to let a rule cover a complete (sub)network, the mask may
contain an arbitrary bit pattern. A mask containing only 0's
matches with every address.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
The protocol, being either TCP, UDP, ICMP, or "any".
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Source and destination port numbers (services), used in
combination with TCP or UDP packets. Up to ten source and
destination ports may be specified in one rule, including ranges
of ports (like 1024-65535, representing all unpriviliged ports).
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Message types, used with ICMP packets.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Bits to match with the TCP flags ACK and SYN, used to refuse the
establishment of new TCP connections in a certain direction.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
The name or IP address of a network device. Rules containing a
device specification will only match with packets coming in (or
going out) via that particular device.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
A specification for changing the TOS-field in the IP header, being
used when a packet is accepted by that rule.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
A flag indicating if some basic packet information should be
written to the Linux kernel log, in case a packet matches with
that rule.
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
Now that we have seen the basic concepts of the Linux firewall
filters, we will show how to manage the filter rules from an
administrator point of view.
<p>
<a name="04"></a>
<center><img src="/img/separators/yellow-long.gif"><br><b>Managing firewall
filters</b><br><img src="/img/separators/yellow-short.gif"></center>
<p>
The interface for managing the kernel-level filter rules at user-level
mainly consists of two parts:
<table>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Firewall rules can be created or deleted via the setsockopt(2)
system call. Via the same mechanism the default policy of a filter
can be changed. All details of this interface are descibed in the
ipfw(4) manual page.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Filters can be inspected by reading the following pseudo-files in
the /proc filesystem:<br>
/proc/net/ip_input<br>
/proc/net/ip_output<br>
/proc/net/ip_forward<br>
Each of these files lists the default policy, followed by the
details of all rules (if any) belonging to that filter, in a
compact format.
</td>
</tr>
</table>
The ipfwadm command provides a command-level interface for managing
the Linux firewall facilities: it can be used to change or inspect all
aspects of the kernel filters. Let's start with a simple example:
<p>
ipfwadm -I -a deny -S 192.168.22.0/24 -D 0.0.0.0/0
<p>
This command basically means "refuse all incoming packets originally
coming from network 192.168.22.0". It appends (-a) a new rule to the
list of filter rules belonging to the input firewall (-I). The output
and forward filters can be changed by using the -O and -F options,
respectively. After the append command the rule's policy is specified.
Valid keywords are accept, deny, and reject (refuse the packet, but
return an ICMP message). The source (-S) and destination (-D)
addresses both include a mask: the suffixes /24 and /0 are equivalent
to /255.255.255.0 and /0.0.0.0, respectively. Every IP address will
match the specified destination, because the mask only contains 0's
(we could also have written something like 11.22.33.44/0).
<p>
Another example:
<p>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -k -P tcp -S 0.0.0.0/0 telnet \
-D 192.168.37.1 1024:65535
<br>
ipfwadm -O -a accept -P tcp -S 192.168.37.1 1024:65535 \
-D 0.0.0.0/0 telnet
<p>
The command creates two rules (one for the input firewall, one for the
output firewall) that accepts all packets belonging to an outgoing
telnet connection (here it is assumed that our local IP address is
192.168.37.1). The protocol is specified via the -P option and after
the IP address a service name (telnet, specifying port 23) and a port
range (in this case all unpriviliged ports) are specified. The -k
option makes the input rule only match with packets having the TCP ACK
flag set. This prevents someone from trying to initiate a connection
from the outside (using source port 23) to some unpriviliged port on
our system.
<p>
Unfortunately, enabling a service is not as easy for all services. The
ftp protocol, for example, uses a separate, incoming connection to
transfer the data. So, using ftp (unless used in "passive mode")
requires to allow a connection being initiated from outside your own
network. Setting up a set of firewall rules for ftp would look like:
<p>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -k -P tcp -S 0.0.0.0/0 ftp \
-D 192.168.37.1 1024:65535
<br>
ipfwadm -O -a accept -P tcp -S 192.168.37.1 1024:65535 \
-D 0.0.0.0/0 ftp
<br>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -P tcp -S 0.0.0.0/0 ftp-data \
-D 192.168.37.1 1024:65535
<br>
ipfwadm -O -a accept -k -P tcp -S 192.168.37.1 1024:65535 \
-D 0.0.0.0/0 ftp-data
<p>
Here it is assumed that ftp-data is a valid service name for TCP port
20.
<p>
With the -p (set policy) command a default policy is specified.
<p>
ipfwadm -F -p deny
<p>
In this case, all forwarding is disabled, unless packets match with
one of the forward rules, explicitly allowing them to pass the filter.
Filters can be listed using the -l command, like in:
<p>
ipfwadm -I -l
<p>
This command would produce the following result, after issuing the
above ipfwadm commands for the input firewall:
<PRE>
IP firewall input rules, default policy: accept
typ prot source destination ports
den all 192.168.22.0/24 anywhere n/a
acc tcp anywhere gw.foo.com telnet -> 1024:65535
acc tcp anywhere gw.foo.com ftp -> 1024:65535
acc tcp anywhere gw.foo.com ftp-data -> 1024:65535
</PRE>
The printed hostname, gw.foo.com, corresponds to the local system,
having IP address 192.168.37.1. There are several options to change or
extend the given output of ipfwadm. The above example show the most
simple format.
<p>
Some more hints for managing firewall filters:
<table>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td colspan=2>
The order of the filter rules is important: only the first
matching rule is taken into account, so the ipfwadm commands
should be given in the correct order.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td colspan=2>
Combine rules (by specifying multiple port numbers or service
names) as much as possible, because checking filter rules for
every IP packet uses some CPU-time.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td colspan=2>
Be sure to define the filters at the appropriate time when
starting up the system. The best place to do this is before the
network devices are configured (using the ifconfig command).
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td colspan=2>
Although ipfwadm allows you to specify host or network names when
defining filter rules, this will not work in most cases, because
the system probably can't resolve names before the network is
operational. For the same reason, use the -n option (numeric
output) when listing filters on moments the network is not (yet)
operational.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td colspan=2>
When you need to change a filter on an operational system, issue
the necessary commands in the right order:
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td valign=top>
1
</td>
<td>
Set the default policy of the filter to deny.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td valign=top>
2
</td>
<td>
Remove all rules belonging to this filter (ipfwadm's -f option).
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td valign=top>
3
</td>
<td>
Set up the new set of filter rules.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td valign=top>
4
</td>
<td>
Set the default policy to the desired value.
This ensures that you don't have any time intervals, during which
network traffic is not controlled by the firewall.
</td>
</tr>
</table>
See the ipfwadm(8) manual page for more details and other options.
<p>
<a name="05"></a>
<center><img src="/img/separators/yellow-long.gif"><br><b>Masquerading (transpa
rent proxying)</b><br><img src="/img/separators/yellow-short.gif"></center>
<p>
The Linux kernel provides an additional mechanism to use in firewall
solutions: masquerading of IP packets. This means that some or all
packets being forwarded by a Linux system can be changed as if there
were sent from the local system. So, the source IP address is replaced
by the local IP address and the source port is replaced by a locally
generated port (e.g., 60005). Because an administration is kept of
masqueraded sessions, incoming packets for that port will
automatically be "demasqueraded" and forwarded to the system that
originally initiated the session.
<p>
The next table summarizes the masquerading function, given a telnet
session from an internal host (192.168.37.15) to an external host
(10.42.17.8), passing a Linux system doing masquerading
(192.168.37.1):
<p>
<center>
<table cellspacing=10>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td colspan=2>source</td>
<td colspan=2>destination</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>IP address</td><td>port</td>
<td>IP address</td><td>port</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=right>original packet</td>
<td>192.168.37.15</td><td>1027</td>
<td>10.42.17.8</td><td>23</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=right>masqueraded</td>
<td>192.168.37.1</td><td>60005</td>
<td>10.42.17.8</td><td>23</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=right>reply packet</td>
<td>10.42.17.8</td><td>23</td>
<td>192.168.37.1</td><td>60005</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align=right>demasqueraded</td>
<td>10.42.17.8</td><td>23</td>
<td>192.168.37.15</td><td>1027</td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
<p>
Masquerading takes place after passing the forward firewall filter.
Demasquerading is done after receiving a packet and demasqueraded
packets bypass the forwarding filter. Figure 2 shows the kernel flow
diagram including (de)masquerading.
<p align=center>
[PICTURE MISSING]
<br>
Figure 2
<p>
Masquerading is not as easy as it seems: some protocols need special
care. One of the problem areas is found in the widely used ftp
protocol, because this protocol uses a second session (normally
initiated by the remote site) for transferring the actual data. A
similar problem arises with the IRC protocol. The Linux IP
masquerading implementation deals with such protocol-specific features
in separately loadable modules. Another problem is that a transparent
proxy should operate on transport level connections, whereas
masquerading is implemented in the network layer. The current
implementation tries to address this with a limited session
administration, but there are still some weaknesses to work on.
<p>
Masquerading can be enabled by specifying a special policy for a
forward filter rule. The next command creates a rule that makes every
outgoing telnet session being masqueraded (given that our local
network has address 192.168.37.0):
<p>
ipfwadm -F -a masquerade -P tcp -S 192.168.37.0/24 \
1024:65535 -D 0.0.0.0/0 telnet
<p>
The masquerade policy is in fact a variant of the accept policy: the
packet is accepted (that is, allowed to be forwarded), but it gets
masqueraded before being sent out. Because the masquerading mechanism
depends on port numbers, it only works for TCP or UDP packets. So, be
careful when using commands like:
<p>
ipfwadm -F -a masquerade -S 192.168.37.0/24 -D 0.0.0.0/0
<p>
This command creates a rule that will cause all outgoing TCP and UDP
traffic to be masqueraded. But it will also let all other packets
(like ICMP messages) be forwarded unchanged, because they will also
match with this rule! So, it's probably better to explicitly handle
those cases, like with:
<p>
ipfwadm -F -p deny
<br>
ipfwadm -F -a masquerade -P tcp -S 192.168.37.0/24 \
-D 0.0.0.0/0
<br>
ipfwadm -F -a masquerade -P udp -S 192.168.37.0/24 \
-D 0.0.0.0/0
<p>
Especially when using unregistered IP addresses on your internal
network (like the addresses defined in RFC1597 or, even worse,
illegally used addresses), no packets should ever be forwarded
directly.
<p>
Please note that there are no "masquerading rules", but only
forwarding rules with a special policy. So, you can list the rules
with a command like:
<p>
ipfwadm -F -l
<p>
which will (given the above example) result in something like:
<pre>
IP firewall forward rules, default policy: deny
typ prot source destination ports
msq tcp 192.168.37.0/24 anywhere any -> any
msq udp 192.168.37.0/24 anywhere any -> any
</pre>
Besides this static information, the list of sessions currently being
masqueraded can be inspected. This is dynamic information, changing
every moment, which can be used to keep track of the external
connections being active. The command
<p>
ipfwadm -M -l
<p>
might for example produce the following output:
<pre>
IP masquerading entries
prot expire source destination ports
tcp 13:00.15 int1.foo.com ext2.bar.com 1017 (60001) -> login
tcp 14:15.60 int2.foo.com ext1.bar.com 1346 (60010) -> telnet
tcp 14:52.82 int1.foo.com ext1.bar.com 1348 (60015) -> ftp
</pre>
The above table shows three sessions being masqueraded. The
information is read from the pseudo-file /proc/net/ip_masquerade,
which is converted to a human-readable format by ipfwadm.
<p>
<a name="06"></a>
<center><img src="/img/separators/yellow-long.gif"><br><b>IP traffic
accounting</b><br><img src="/img/separators/yellow-short.gif"></center>
<p>
In Linux, IP traffic can be counted using accounting rules, defined by
the same characteristics as the firewall rules. Accounting is done at
two places: when a packet is received and when a packet is sent out
(see figure 3).
<p align=center>
[PICTURE MISSING]
<br>
Figure 3
<p>
So, a packet being forwarded is counted twice: the first time just
after its arrival, the second time when it is being sent out again.
There is one single list of accounting rules, that is being used for
both incoming and outgoing traffic. For every packet, all rules in
this list are checked and the packet and byte counters of every
matching rule are incremented. Note the difference with the firewall
lists: scanning a list there stops at the first match.
<p>
The following ipfwadm command counts all http traffic related to
people using your WWW-server from the outside:
<p>
ipfwadm -A -a -b -W eth1 -P tcp -S 0.0.0.0/0 \
-D 192.168.37.1 www
<p>
Here it is assumed that the local system, hosting the WWW-server, has
IP address 192.168.37.1. We see some new options in this command. The
-b option means "bidirectional", and makes that also packets coming
from 192.168.37.1 (port 80) are counted. The -W option has an
interface name as parameter, so that only traffic via that particular
interface is taken into account. Packets passing another interface
(e.g., an interface eth0 connected to your internal network) are not
counted here.
<p>
Some suggestions to use accounting most effectively:
<table>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Reset the counters at certain intervals via cron, for example
every day or every hour. Currently, the counters are 32-bits
unsigned integers, so they will wrap around after 4 GByte.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Combining the -l (list) and -z (reset to 0) options will reset the
counters immediately after showing their current values, so no
packets will be left uncounted.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
The most extensive output you get with the -Alex set of options,
optionally with -z (reset values) or -n (numeric output) added.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
If you want to count all traffic excluding some specific
protocols, like http and ftp, you can define rules for counting
all traffic and rules for counting those protocols. Then just
subtract the values from each other.
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
When listing the accounting rules (and the associated values) with
ipfwadm, the pseudo-file /proc/net/ip_acct is read.
<p>
<a name="07"></a>
<center><img src="/img/separators/yellow-long.gif"><br><b>A real-life
example</b><br><img src="/img/separators/yellow-short.gif"></center>
<p>
This section lists a complete example for a set of firewall filters on
a Linux system acting as a gateway between the Internet and a private
network. Note that this example is only included for illustrative
purposes. Although it will protect the internal network to some
extend, we strongly discourage to consider this to be a complete,
robust firewall solution.
<p>
The example applies to a gateway system (gw.foo.com) connected to the
Internet using interface 192.168.22.15 and to an internal network
(192.168.37.0) via interface 192.168.37.1. The system is as a public
WWW and ftp server, it can send and receive mail, it acts as a mail
relay host for the internal network, and it is the primary DNS server
for the foo.com domain.
<p>
Hosts on the private network can directly use telnet, WWW, ftp, gopher
and WAIS services on the Internet (which is not a recommended firewall
architecture). Also, ICMP traffic is allowed without any restrictions
(e.g., to enable ping). Note that traceroute will not work, because
this is using UDP packets to some unpriviliged ports.
<p>
# Some definitions for easy maintenance.
<br>
LOCALHOST="gw.foo.com"
<br>
IFEXTERN="192.168.22.15"
<br>
IFINTERN="192.168.37.1"
<br>
LOCALNET="192.168.37.0/24"
<br>
ANYWHERE="0.0.0.0/0"
<br>
UNPRIVPORTS="1024:65535"
<p>
# ====== Basic rules.
<p>
# Sure we're paranoid, but are we paranoid enough?
<br>
ipfwadm -I -p deny
<br>
ipfwadm -O -p deny
<br>
ipfwadm -F -p deny
<p>
# Handle spoofed packets.
<br>
ipfwadm -I -a deny -V $IFEXTERN -S $LOCALNET -D ANYWHERE
<br>
ipfwadm -I -a deny -V $IFEXTERN -S $IFEXTERN -D ANYWHERE
<p>
# Unlimited traffic within the local network.
<br>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -V $IFINTERN -S $ANYWHERE -D $ANYWHERE
<br>
ipfwadm -O -a accept -V $IFINTERN -S $ANYWHERE -D $ANYWHERE
<p>
# Unlimited ICMP traffic (not recommended).
<br>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -P icmp -S $ANYWHERE -D $ANYWHERE
<br>
ipfwadm -O -a accept -P icmp -S $ANYWHERE -D $ANYWHERE
<br>
ipfwadm -F -a accept -P icmp -S $ANYWHERE -D $ANYWHERE
<p>
# ====== External use of our system.
# Public access for e-mail, ftp, WWW, and DNS.
<br>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -P tcp \
-S $ANYWHERE -D $LOCALHOST smtp ftp www domain
<br>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -P udp \
-S $ANYWHERE -D $LOCALHOST domain
<br>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -k -P tcp \
-S $ANYWHERE -D $LOCALHOST ftp-data
<br>
ipfwadm -O -a accept -P tcp -S $LOCALHOST smtp ftp \
ftp-data www domain -D $ANYWHERE
<br>
ipfwadm -O -a accept -P udp \
-S $LOCALHOST domain -D $ANYWHERE
<p>
# ====== Internal use of the Internet.
<p>
# Outgoing packets.
<br>
ipfwadm -O -a accept -P tcp -S $LOCALNET $UNPRIVPORTS \
-D $ANYWHERE smtp ftp ftp-data www telnet gopher \
z3950 domain
<br>
ipfwadm -O -a accept -P tcp -S $IFEXTERN $UNPRIVPORTS \
-D $ANYWHERE smtp ftp ftp-data www telnet gopher \
z3950 domain
<br>
ipfwadm -O -a accept -P udp -S $LOCALNET $UNPRIVPORTS \
-D $ANYWHERE z3950
<br>
ipfwadm -O -a accept -P udp -S $LOCALHOST $UNPRIVPORTS \
-D $ANYWHERE z3950 domain
<br>
ipfwadm -F -a accept -P tcp -S $LOCALNET $UNPRIVPORTS \
-D $ANYWHERE ftp ftp-data www telnet gopher z3950
<br>
ipfwadm -F -a accept -P udp -S $LOCALNET $UNPRIVPORTS \
-D $ANYWHERE z3950
<p>
# Incoming packets.
<p>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -k -P tcp \
-S $ANYWHERE ftp www telnet gopher z3950 domain \
-D $LOCALNET $UNPRIVPORTS
<br>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -k -P tcp \
-S $ANYWHERE ftp www telnet gopher z3950 domain \
-D $IFEXTERN $UNPRIVPORTS
<br>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -P tcp \
-S $ANYWHERE ftp-data -D $LOCALNET $UNPRIVPORTS
<br>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -P tcp \
-S $ANYWHERE ftp-data -D $IFEXTERN $UNPRIVPORTS
<br>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -P udp \
-S $ANYWHERE z3950 -D $LOCALNET $UNPRIVPORTS
<br>
ipfwadm -I -a accept -P udp -S $ANYWHERE z3950 domain \
-D $LOCALHOST $UNPRIVPORTS
<br>
ipfwadm -F -a accept -k -P tcp \
-S $ANYWHERE ftp www telnet gopher z3950 \
-D $LOCALNET $UNPRIVPORTS
<br>
ipfwadm -F -a accept -P tcp \
-S $ANYWHERE ftp-data -D $LOCALNET $UNPRIVPORTS
<br>
ipfwadm -F -a accept -P udp \
-S $ANYWHERE z3950 -D $LOCALNET $UNPRIVPORTS
<p>
Some further remarks about the above example:
<table>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
</td>
<td>
The variable $LOCALHOST should only be used if this name will map
to the two corresponding IP addresses, $IFINTERN and $IFEXTERN,
via the /etc/hosts file, without consulting a nameserver. The
ipfwadm command will automatically create the necessary number of
filter rules when a given hostname results in more than one IP
address.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
</td>
<td>
A few rules are needed for all hosts on the internal network and
for the gateway system itself. In these cases, two rules are
created, one with $LOCALNET and one with $IFEXTERN, together
covering all needed addresses.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
</td>
<td>
Adding some additional services, like rlogin, requires allowing a
wider range of ports than defined in $UNPRIVPORTS. For these kind
of services, the clients use ports below 1024.
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
<a name="08"></a>
<center><img src="/img/separators/yellow-long.gif"><br><b>Future
directions</b><br><img src="/img/separators/yellow-short.gif"></center>
<p>
Although the current Linux firewall facilities are very useful, there
are still some weaknesses and missing features. Therefore, possible
areas for improvement in future Linux versions might be:
<table>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Adding support for true transparent application-level proxying, by
allowing sessions to be redirected to local proxy servers.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Further modularization of the firewall and masquerading code.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Keeping some kind of state information, at least to detect related
fragments.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Some graphical user interface for configuring the firewall and
accounting rules, being a front-end to ipfwadm.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
One or more new policies might be added for refusing a packet.
</td>
</tr>
</table>
Given this, there is a good chance that Linux will soon be able to
compete with the more advanced commercial firewall solutions on the
market.
<p>
<a name="09"></a>
<center><img src="/img/separators/yellow-long.gif"><br><b>Complete firewalls
based on Linux</b><br><img src="/img/separators/yellow-short.gif"></center>
<p>
In general, most of the optimal firewall solutions are some mixture of
IP filters and application-level proxies, although the detailed
architecture highly depends on the target environment. Proxies are
mostly used for enabling extra authentication methods and advanced
logging facilities. Linux systems can be used as a complete firewall
solution, when using additional packages like the Firewall Toolkit of
Trusted Information Systems, Inc. (TIS), S/Key or one of its
derivatives like OPIE (One-time Passwords In Everything), SOCKS, etc.
These packages are freely available and are known to work on Linux.
But keep in mind that the use of a single bastion host without a
filtering router is not recommended practice.
<p>
The pro's en con's of using free software for mission-critical
applications like a firewall often focus on the black box versus
crystal box debate. A commercial product usually doesn't come with
source code, so nobody can study that code to find security leaks and
try to misuse them. This is the black box concept, sometimes called
"security by obscurity". On the other hand, when using freely
available software, everybody, including the user, can look for
possible bugs or weaknesses. The source code is available, so this
approach is often referred to as a crystal box (of course,
configuration details, local enhancements, etc., are not known
publically). This usually will make bugs be found earlier, and fixes
are just made available via the Internet, often within hours after
detecting a bug.
<p>
The costs of a Linux firewall solution are relatively low. Given
today's decreasing prices of PC's, a single Linux PC acting as a
filtering router might cost less than Dfl. 1,500. A more advanced
Linux system, also hosting several proxy services, a WWW-server, etc.,
will cost no more than Dfl. 3,000. Of course, these prices do not
include consulting services to configure a customized firewall
solution. But, be aware of the fact that you'll also have additional
costs when buying a commercial firewall product. The quality of a
total firewall solution highly depends on a well-designed
configuration scheme, no matter whether it's based on commercial or
free components.
<p>
<a name="10"></a>
<center><img src="/img/separators/yellow-long.gif"><br><b>References</b><br><im
g src="/img/separators/yellow-short.gif"></center>
<p>
The newest Linux kernel is available from:
<br>
<a href="ftp://ftp.cs.helsinki.fi/pub/pub/Software/Linux/Kernel/">ftp://ftp.cs.
helsinki.fi/pub/pub/Software/Linux/Kernel/</a>
<br>
<a href="ftp://ftp.nluug.nl/pub/os/Linux/system/kernel/">ftp://ftp.nluug.nl/pub
/os/Linux/system/kernel/</a>
<p>
The home page of ipfwadm on the World Wide Web:
<br>
<a href="http://www.xos.nl/linux/ipfwadm/">http://www.xos.nl/linux/ipfwadm/<;/a>
<p>
The ipfwadm package can be obtained via:
<br>
<a href="ftp://ftp.xos.nl/pub/linux/ipfwadm/">ftp://ftp.xos.nl/pub/linux/ipfwad
m/</a>
<p>
Some recommended books about firewalls:
<table>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Building Internet Firewalls<br>
D. Brent Chapman, Elizabeth D. Zwicky<br>
O'Reilly & Associates, Inc.<br>
ISBN 1-56592-124-0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
<img src="/img/icons/checked.gif">
</td>
<td>
Firewalls and Internet Security<br>
William R. Cheswick, Steven M. Bellovin<br>
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company<br>
ISBN 0-201-63357-4
</td>
</tr>
</table>
Oooo.
+=-------------------.oooO----( | )-----------------------------------=+
( | ) | /
\ | (_/
\_)
NMi iNtERCEPtOR ( Alexander Javoronkov / [email protected] ) X:\>
[Team OS/2] [iRC @#dom] [Крик-9 Team "Модем"] [Linux 2.0.27]
... Windows is NOT a virus. Viruses DO something !
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